A large and rare Dutch musical table clock from the Dutch Royal collection.

Collection of Queen Juliana

Gude & Meis recently acquired a Dutch table clock which was sold at Sotheby’s Amsterdam in March 2011. The sale consisted of art and objects from the collection of Queen Juliana of The Netherlands. We thought that it would be interesting to share the history, characteristics and restoration of this clock with you in a series of short articles.

Update

Following our earlier posts about the former whereabouts of the clock and some explanation on dating table clock we now have to wait. Our restorers our quite busy bringing the clock back to its former glory. And there is good news; the work on the clock case has finished. Therefore we thought it nice to show you the original state and the final result.

An untouched clock

Looking carefully at the old pictures we can see that there were already quite a few defects in the clock. The best visible of these defects being the small curl next to the finial on top of the clock. But besides this there are pieces of molding and fretwork that are either damaged or lacking. On the Sotheby’s picture this curl seems to be there but when we purchased the clock it seemed missing again. Even on the picture from Palace Nooreinde from the 1930’s the clock seems to be damaged while in the living quarters of Queen Wilhelmina. This is quite remarkable when we realize that at that time she was one of the richest women in the world. It also means that the clock was untouched for about hundred years.

The damaged frets

Here we can see the damages to the frets above the door. Looking closely at the picture of 1967 these damages are visible also.

The sides

This are pictures from both sides of the case. Not only is the fretwork missing on one side. Also lacking are a semi circular wooden molding and a brass molding.

The ‘bell top’

Besides the small curl next to the top finial that was missing there were more defects to the bell top of the case. On one side a piece of fretwork was lacking. The whole top was just standing loose on a strip of fabric showing that this was actually done on purpose. It remains a question why this was done.

The plinth

On the pictures of the plinth we can see that part of the brass mounts were loose. However it does show the corner joint nicely. The clock must have been in a damp place at one time with the moisture causing spotting of the black finish.

A pleasant surprise

Taking everything into account quite a few parts and pieces seemed to be lacking which meant that these needed to be reconstructed. This is possible but expensive. But we were lucky. As usual the movement is placed on a seatboard which rests on wooden blocks to make sure it is at the right height. This leaves a void below this seatboard that can’t be looked into easily. To our pleasant surprise we found a lot of the missing pieces when we took the movement out of the case. It was probably policy to put parts that came off the clock inside the case for later repair. With this the brass mount and ebony moulding didn’t have to be re-made and the fretwork could be repaired and placed back.

The final result

Here is the final result. The loose parts glued back. The fretwork repaired, added and placed back over a ground of new fabric. All brass mounts and parts were cleaned and put back on the case. Finally the black finish was redone making the case look fantastic again! Praise to the restorer!

At this moment the movement and dial are being restored….. To be continued!

The table clock

In Holland the invention of the pendulum by Huygens in 1656 lead to the development of the ‘Hague’ clock. In England this invention lead among others to the originating of the table- or bracket clock as was the name for the type until some fifteen years ago. There is a number of distinct characteristics that often occurs with this type of clock. For instance the dial is made of brass and matted in the center. On this dial a silvered chapter ring is mounted. The hands are foliate pierced and made of blued steel. The wooden case has a square or rectangular body surmounted by a cushion or bell-shaped top. The front – and back door have glass panels while the sides usually have pierced frets. The movements are heavily executed and consist of vertical brass plates connected by pillars. These movements are driven by spring barrels in combination with a fusee and have a duration of eight days. Finally one can state that until the end of the eighteenth Century table clocks had a verge escapement in combination with a pendulum.

The fusee

Without becoming too technical I think it is useful to explain about the fusee, one of the characteristic components of the movement of the English table clock. Basically it is a conically shaped axis with a groove for the chain or gut line to run into. This chain or gut line is connected to the spring barrel. When winding the barrel via the fusee, the chain or gut will be wound around it. The force that a spring barrel it exerts on the movement diminishes when it unwinds. The change in force of the spring barrel is not good for the accuracy of the movement. But because a fully wound spring will only work on the narrow part of the fusee it has only little leverage. With the spring running down and becoming less powerful it works more and more on a wider part of the fusee gaining leverage. In this way the difference in force of the spring is mitigated which enhances the precision of the movement.

Engeland

English clockmakers coming over to Holland introduced the table clock around 1675. At first this type of clock isn’t produced or copied very much. The ‘Hague clock’ remains the dominant spring driven clock during the seventeenth Century. At the beginning of the eighteenth Century the production of these Hague clocks starts to decline. Maybe this is a result of the increasing numbers of table clocks made by Dutch makers and the import of these clocks from England. Still the production of Dutch table clock remains relatively small. The Dutch and English traditions logically have a lot in common, not in the least because of imported parts from England to Holland. But still there are some differences between the two. below I will cover some of the most distinct.

Dutch striking

Usually English clocks only strike on the hour. When there is more elaborate striking it is usually quarter chiming. It consists of a melody that sounding each quarter and becoming longer at each following quarter. At the (full) hour in addition to the quarter melody, the hours will be struck. One might think of the striking of Big Ben.
With Dutch half hour striking the hour will sound on a large bell. At the half hour the clock will strike the number of the coming hour on a small bell (higher pitch). It might sound a little odd for an English person but this has to do with the way the Dutch name the half hour. At 6.30 a Dutch person will say (roughly translated) ‘the half hour of seven’. This is similar to German. Since the Dutch say ‘the half hour of Seven’ it is logical that the clock will strike seven times.
There is also a Dutch quarter striking which goes as following. The striking of the hour and half hour is identical with Dutch half hour striking. But the first and third quarter are indicated by a single strike on the alternating large and small bell. This Dutch quarter striking is uncommon for table clocks but is quite usual for longcase clocks and Zaanse wall clocks.

Calendar and moonphase

Most English clocks and especially those made in London only have date indication.. More elaborate calendar indications are far more common with Dutch clocks, like day of the week and month. Moonphase indication is also very common with Dutch clocks. In my opinion this has to do with high- and low tide which are caused by the gravity of the moon. This was very useful in country this close to sea level. For instance sea ships only could get close to Amsterdam with high tide.

Alarm

Table- and longcase clocks made for the English (London) market hardly ever are equipped with an alarm, those are usually fitted in wall clocks. With Dutch clocks alarms are much more common. Even the large longcase clocks often have one. Dutch table clocks or English table clocks for the Dutch market often have alarm work. I do need to state that alarm work is less common than i.e. Dutch striking.

The chapter ring

There are some differences in the execution of the chapter ring although there are some Dutch clocks that don’t show these. But these characteristics are almost never visible on English clocks.
The outer rim is calibrated for every five minutes. (5-10-15-etc) With English clocks the numbers 20 until 40 are upside down. With Dutch clocks these numbers are turned so they are straight up. Another feature of the minute calibration are the five-minute arches. Between the five minute numbering, the calibrated ring has arches. This is a feature that is seen often on Dutch clocks from the middle of the 18th Century on.
English export clocks for the Dutch market often have one or more of these characteristics.

A circa date for our clock

In a short article like this it is not possible to discuss all exceptions. But is general I can state that the table clock doesn’t change a lot between 1680 and 1780. The main shape of the case remains the same and doesn’t seem to be affected by big changes stylistically. These changes are apparent in the execution of the applied ornaments and for instance the engraving of the back plates of the movements. A reason for this could be the sample books that were used by the workmen.

Because of these subtle changes to details only it is not easy for a layman to date a table clock. I will try to explain how we establish a circa date for our clock by looking at these details.

Looking for clues

Ebony

Our clock is veneered with ebony which unfortunately does not give us useful information for establishing a date. During the whole period of table clock production ebony or ebonized wood was used. True ebony which was very rare and expensive was used mostly in the 17th Century after which the cheaper ebonized wood was mostly used. The process of ebonizing consisted of veneering a clock with pearwood which was then stained black. True ebony was scarcely used in the 18th Century for expensive and more exclusive clocks. Besides ebony (and ebonized) other types of wood were used to veneer clocks. These different types of wood are typical for certain periods. Walnut or burr walnut is used in the first half of the 18th Century while mahogany is the typical wood for the period 1760 – 1800.

The inverted bell top

Because the top part of the case changes during the course of the development of the bracket clock, the different appearances can be useful for a (pro-ante) date. Our clock is surmounted by an ‘inverted bell top’ which was introduced around 1715. It consists of convex part surmounted by a concave part. Basically this is the other way around when we look at a bell which would have a concave part surmounted by a convex part (true bell). The inverted bell top remains into use until the end of the 18th Century. Around the middle of the 18th Century the ‘true bell top’ is introduced which becomes the type most used in the second half of the 18th Century. Because of the long use of the inverted bell top it gives a date between 1715 and 1800.

Herm and trailing flower mounts

On the canted corners of the case of our clock there are applied cast mounts. Often these consist of a head or half figure with flowers and foliage below. The Herm- or Caryatid mounts come into use around 1735 and are used until the end of the 18th Century on some of the table clocks.

The dial

The dial consists of several parts like the brass plate itself, the applied chapter ring and the spandrels. (corner ornaments) As stated before, these part all went through changes that can give us clues for dating the clock. The dial is depicted here in its unrestored condition.
First there is the arched shape of the brass plate. The ‘arched dial’ followed the square dial. It seems the clockmakers switched from the square dial to the arched dial in a relative short period between 1710 – 1715. After that hardly any table clocks with square dials were made. At first the arches were narrow but after a decade or so these would take up almost the full width of the dials. The ‘arch’ was probably popular because it provided space for extra dials, a moonphase or a large signature plaque. It also made the clocks higher and more impressive looking. Our clock has a moonphase (typically Dutch) which is lined with a sector inscribed the with the tunes for the tune selection. 

Another somewhat more subtle characteristic are the protective rings that are around the two upper winding holes. These were very common often in a more larger execution with earlier clocks until the end of the first quarter of the 18th Century. After then, they become smaller and are used less and less. Around 1750 the use of these rings seems to have vanished altogether.

Finally there is the aperture for the mock pendulum. This is a small disc connected to the pendulum and moves in the arched slot under XII showing the clock is running. The mock pendulum is a feature seen on table clock from the early beginning on. The use becomes in disuse in the course of the third quarter of the 18th Century.

The Chapter ring

Looking at the chapter ring we see that the five-minute indication is done in the ‘Dutch way’ with the numerals between 20 and 40 straight up instead of upside down. The outer ring calibrated for the minutes is still straight which seems to indicate a date of origin before 1750. More difficult to explain but an important indication is the letter type. With our clock the letters and numerals (of the minute indication) are relatively large and squarish. In my opinion this is something seen often with clocks between 1730 and 1750.

The spandrels

The brass ornaments which fill the corners around the chapter ring are called spandrels. These corner ornaments go through a distinctive development through time giving evidence for dating a dial. The spandrels on our dial are a variation of the so-called ‘mask-spandrels’. These come into use after the ‘crown and cherub’ spandrels around 1720. The term refers to the face or mask that is placed in symmetrical foliate ornament. A distinctive difference with the earlier ‘crown and cherub’ spandrels is that the mask spandrels fill the whole space of the corner outside the chapter ring leaving no un-decorated space. These are also flatter having much less relief than earlier spandrels. Our mask spandrels are a little version having a bit more relief and of a slightly more open form. (1730-1740) Around 1750 the ‘rococo spandrels’ become into use. These are asymmetrical foliate spandrels that are more open of form leaving more empty space.

Taking everything into account I think that our clock was made between 1735 and 1745.

This article is based on a part of a lecture held in September 2017 here in our gallery in Amsterdam. In it the production process of the French ormolu mantel clock will be explained and which workmen were responsible for the result. A short literature list is stated below.

I have chosen the French gilt bronze mantel clock, because I wanted to limit the subject. The ‘fire gilding’ is a procedure in which gold is dissolved into mercury. After applying the mixture the object is heated. The heating causes the mercury to evaporate leaving the gold on the object. The result is often referred to as ormolu (or molu) which means milled gold. A more detailed description of the procedure is below.

The clock maker.

One might think that a mantel clock was the result of the work of one person, probably the clock maker. But it was in fact the result of the work of a number of masters. These masters included bronze casters, gilders and designers. Of course the clock maker was responsible for the the movement but even that wasn’t just made by one person only. Already early in the 18th Century there were specialists responsible for certain parts like main springs, hands and dials. Around the middle of the 18th Century it became more common that even the movements were supplied partly made. These blanc roulants or ebauches had to be finished. Many parts still needed to be polished, the escapement and the dial work had to be fitted. The cutting of the movement plates, wheels etc all was done by lower trained workmen. Who either worked from their home or in workshops. Frédéric Japy was trained as clock maker and already supplied half finished movements to clock makers from around 1770. In the process he used other workmen, working from home, to provide parts. After having designed machines for cutting and polishing clock parts which could now be made faster and cheaper, he opened a factory in Badeval in the Jura in 1779. His production line was so successful that the company opened up a number of other factories lead by his sons. So the large company named Japy frères originated.  (Allix & Bonnert, Carriage clocks pp. 129 – 149)

To make designing easier, the French movement from the mid 18th Century on often are annular of form, fitting behind the dial. In this way the designer of a clock case didn’t need to take the movement into account. The annular shaped movements also made it easier for the different disciplines to work together.

Altogether the work of the clock maker was actually small comparing to the other craftsmen working on these mantel clocks. This also shows in the percentage he received of the amount paid for these clocks. The designer would earn about 10% of the total amount paid for the clock, the bronze caster would receive 20%, the chiseler 30%, the gilder 30% which would leave a mere 5-10% for the clock maker. His share would relatively be smaller when the clock was larger.

The production of the gilt bronze clock case.

We can conclude that most of the work for producing these ormolu mantel clocks was done by the makers of the case, which was proved by the portion that they received of the total amount paid for the clock.

It is remarkable that the masters were members of sometimes six different guilds. Therefore it isn’t a surprise that the first large ormolu pieces (clocks, candelabra etc) were made in the workshops around the court where the restrictions of guilds were applicable. Many complaints and court cases are known about masters employing workmen from other guilds. It was only until 1776 when a new guild for bronze casters and gilders was created.

The division between the guilds was probably also the reason why large gilt bronze objects weren’t produced for a long time. (from circa 1730 – 1740). This division can also explain why there aren’t many places outside Paris where large ormolu pieces were produced. The exceptions are the courts of Turin and Munich, and the workshop of Michael Boulton in England.

The designer.

Of course first a design had to be made of the mantel clock. Sometimes this was done by the bronze caster (bronzier). But most of the times it was done it was done by interior designers, sculptors and artists. Quite a few drawings have survived showing the designs of mantel clocks. Many of them were deposited at the Paris library to make a sort of copy right possible.

The caster (Bronzier)

The two dimensional design had to be translated to a three dimensional model in wood, wax or clay (bozetto). From this model, the separate parts were modeled and pouring channels added. After that these parts were put into wooden crates with sand mixed with bone glue. In this way a mold was made. The molten bronze was cast into the mold, melting the wax and filling the left cavities. Thus forming the part in bronze with the pouring channels left on to them. The mold was removed. When copying a certain part, these parts were used because the pouring channels were still on them.

Here we see a print showing the wooden boxes that were used to make the molds in. The wax models were pushed into the sand mixed with bone glue. The boxes were fixed together so the casting channels connected and the cast bronze would go through all the boxes. The molten wax would poor out at the bottom.

Here is a print depicting a bronze caster’s workshop. We clearly see the large bellows to heat up the fire. Further there are unit of boxes fixed together in which the molten bronze is poured. At the side there are further wooden boxes ready for use.

Here is a picture of a cast sculpture coming straight from the mold with the pouring channels still on it.

The chaser (ciseleur)

The chaser is actually a sort of sculptor. Not only does he remove the casting channels. With chiseling, filing and sanding he removes all the imperfections left after the casting and brings out the right form. He also adds all the details that can’t be accomplished by just casting. Details like i.e. fingernails, eye lids and hair have to be made after the casting. Furthermore was he able to make different surface textures (representing i.e. hair, fabric, skin) which of course is important to make a sculpture look more real and lively.

It is therefore not surprising that the difference in quality has a lot to do with the skill of the chaser. It is also the reason why there are differences in quality between executions of the same model.

Here is a print showing tools of a chaser.

The gilder.

After the chiseling the object went to the gilder. A chaser would fix the object during his work with pitch. This needed to be removed. This was done by heating the object which also burned other dirt or grease. Another important thing happened during this heating. The object would oxidize. Bronze is an alloy of mainly copper with pewter and some zinc. During the oxidation the lesser metals would oxidize most. When the oxidation was removed, a copper-rich surface would remain. The copper-rich surface was better for the gold to attach to the alloy.
The removing of the oxidation was done by sanding up until about 1780. This meant that past of the chaser’s work was undone by this sanding. This could be the reason why the detailing of earlier Louis XVI pieces is more full of shape (plastic) than later. After the invention of nitric acid the oxidation could be removed chemically which did not temper with the chaser’s work.

Amalgam

Amalgam is gold dissolved in mercury. When heating mercury one can dissolve gold leaf or gold pallets in mercury in a ration of 1:8. At 300 degrees C the gold is fully dissolved. After that the solution is poured in water to cool and clean it. While doing that a chemical phase originates with the gold chemically connecting with the mercury. This connection is rich in gold (40 -50%) and can be separated from from the rest by squeezing it through a shammy. The silver colored residue is a paste called amalgam.

The amalgam is applied to the bronze by a soft brush. After that the object goes into a furnace. At 356 degrees C mercury will evaporate. But at circa 300 degrees C it starts to volatilize, the layer becomes fluid and changes color. This was the moment that the layer would be distributed further and worked in an open furnace. This was very unhealthy of course since mercury fumes are very toxic.

After applying this layer of gold it was still matt and porous. The small holes in the layer could cause oxidation of the bronze below because of the contact with the air. Dirt also could get into these small holes. These holes were closed by worked the surface with a brass brush immersed in beer or vinegar. After this procedure the layer starts to shine somewhat.

Finishing.

The layer of gold then can be finished in different ways that can bring more liveliness and differences in texture.

The layer can be polished by rubbing an agate stone into the same direction over and over. In this way, the layer that would look grainy under a microscope will be smoothed and closed. It will also start to ripple a little like grains of sand in the wind. The minuscule ripples will make the surface shimmer in candle light in stead of just being a flat gold mirror. One can easily spot this rippling when looking across the light.

Matting.

Parts of the surface that didn’t need to shine were matted. Before circa 1780 – 90 that was done by working the surface with a punch making tiny dents that would stop the surface to act like a ‘mirror’. It would leave a gilt but not reflecting surface. Because of the way it was done this matting was fairly rough. After circa 1780 – 90 it was possible to do this with a chemical process. This process is very complex but it worked in the following way. The part that needed to be matted was covered, after gilding, in a emulsion containing gum and carbon. It was put back into the furnace. A very thin layer of gold would evaporate and settle out like water vapor on glass. The result was a very fine matting on a flat, not punched, surface.

Coloring

In the end the gilder could change the hue of the gold. There are no less than six different procedures known, to change the hue of the gold. The example I will give here is to obtain a reddish hue. Before the brushing with a brass brush immersed in beer or vinegar, one had to apply a mixture of yellow wax, bole, verdigris and borax onto the still hot part. After that the part had to be washed off with vinegar. Both the copper from the verdigris and the red clay from the bolus supplied the red pigment.

Here we see a French gilt bronze mantel clock in parts. After all the stages of the making of the mantel clock it had to be put together. It was fixed with screws and iron bars keeping all the parts together.

As stated, after all the stages the whole had to be assembled, which was a relative simple job comparing with all the work that went into it before hand.

Finally there are a few remarks regarding fire gilding. After 1840 -’50 fire gilding was only done very sporadically. Very early it was known that the procedure was very unhealthy. There were already in the 18th Century certain measures known to make it less dangerous. We have to take in mind things like better ventilated workshops and furnaces with better air suction. The famous bronzier/doreur Ravrio even donated a large sum of his legacy in the form of a compition, to come up with a more healthy way of doing the process. (1815)

But it was mainly the advent of galvanic gilding which was easier, healthier and above all cheaper, that fire gilding disappeared.

I hope that this article gave some insight into the process of making these fine works of art.

Literatuurlijst;

A.R.J. Pappot, De vuurvergulding in de 18e en 19e eeuw, Bachelorscriptie 2010 Amsterdam.

Ottomeyer en Pröschel, Vergoldete Bronzen deel I en II, München 1986.

Pierre Kjellberg, La Pendule Française, Parijs 1997.

Elke Niehüser, Die französische Bronzeuhr, München 1997

Allix en Bonnert, Carriage clocks, 1974 Woodbridge

This article is based on a lecture that was held in our shop on May 20th and 21st 2017.

The reason for choosing this subject was a discussion that we had after buying this fine French mantel clock. The casting, chiseling and gilding is of excellent quality and it must have been expensive at the time it was made. But the subject matter can be called unusual. When we take a closer look we see a classical lady next to a goat feeding a baby. The question might arise; who would like to have this scene on his mantel piece? And Why? Actually when thinking about it, it is also remarkable that the art of the Classical Antiquity was chosen as example and subject for the art of the late Middle Ages and after. Often classical art has nude figures in it. Their civilization was pagan and they had many Gods. Furthermore a large number of esteemed philosophers and a number of emperors were homosexual, which was problematic for Christian society. And finally, Western society deemed themselves superior to other civilizations because according to them the others didn’t have the right faith and therefore just were barbarians. For example, they looked down on the Arabic world that was actually much further in science and art in that time.

But it was impossible to deny the accomplishments of antique society. There were still enough buildings, ruins and sculptures left to show that their art was superior to Western art. Sporadic survived books showed that science, philosophy and literature had been at a very high level.

The term Classicism is used for art that is inspired or based on the art of the antiquity (Greeks and Romans). In a narrow sense the term Neo Classicism is used for the period of Louis XVI going through to the end of the Empire. A lot of the art that was made in this period was inspired on Antiquity.

But in a broad sense Antiquity was already an inspiration or example for much longer. For instance Romanesque architecture (10th – 12th C) is clearly inspired on Roman architecture.

During the Baroque era classical elements and shapes were used to create a new art.

But the most obvious period in which Classical art was admired was the Renaissance. ‘Renaissance’ means ‘rebirth’, which refers to the rebirth of Classical art. In the second half of the 15th C there were philosophers and artists that used classical philosophy to justify their admiration and adaptation of classical examples.

An important event in this development is the conquering of Constantinopel ( current Istanbul), the ancient capital of the Eastern Roman Empire in 1453 by the Ottomans. Many fled the city among which scholars who brought classical books yet unknown in the west.

Neoplatonism

As the word implies, Neo Platonism is based on the works of Plato. It was the philosopher Plotinus (3rd C AD) played an important role in the development of this philosophical school.

Neoplatonism isn’t an all comprehensive system but more a collection of ideas which are used to explain a number of problems.

An important view is that there is a supernatural invisible world in which the Gods and ideas are. Opposite to this world is a visible tangible world that is subject to change in which we live. There is a clear contradiction between the spiritual/intellectual and the physical/instinctive.

Neoplatonists see the divine or elevated in everything in more or lesser measure. A rock for instance, stands very low. Above this there is for instance a plant, above which there is an animal. Above all is mankind. We humans have a key position between the higher invisible world and the lower visible world. This because the human soul can choose to either elevate itself, or to attach itself to the worldly material.

One can elevate himself by contemplation (deep thought or praying). But also by listening to beautiful music, poetry or looking at something beautiful and elevated. This idea still lives in our society. My mother always told me that it was better to read a book than looking at the television. There are still people that speak of elevating the masses. They would do that by going to the theater, the museum or opera. It would turn the masses into better people.

I do understand a little bit why the Neoplatonists thought that one could get close to the elevated world or God by for instance listening to beautiful music. Sometimes music can touch your emotions that it is almost tangible. Or when someone feels that everything just falls into place and for a short moment thinks he understands everything.

When everything is more or less divine, what is the most divine shape or form? It is man. Because man was created in the image of God. This explains the depiction of naked (idealized) figures but also justifies it. It actually elevates you when looking at them. Mankind is therefore not only the connection between the higher and lower world because of the human soul. But mankind is also the pinnacle of beauty.

This famous drawing of Leonardo da Vinci shows that man fits perfectly in a circle and square. How far Neoplatonist thinking went with art is illustrated by the one of the big differences between Gothic and Renaissance architecture. In Gothic architecture plans and forms are based on rectangles, hexagonals and triangles. Reniassance architecture instead is based on squares and circles because these shapes were regarded as more divine with their relation to the human body.

Michelangelo also was a very strong supporter of Neoplatonism and worked very literally to the ideas. He once stated that the divine form was already in the rock, all he had to do was to take away the excess stone. This working method is apparent when we look at an unfinished sculpture of his. He stopped working on it because he thought that he made a mistake and it wasn’t possible anymore to get to the divine form. A pupil of Michelangelo described his way of working like water was running from the tub and the body became visible. He worked straight from the rough stone to great detail.

Platonic love is also based on Neoplatonism. Platonic love is not the physical but the spiritual not physical love. It was regarded as much more noble and superior to physical love.

With the acceptance and assimilation of Classical art and forms, an art evolved in which abstract ideas could be represented by figures from mythology or another personification. For example Cupid is not just a naked boy with wings but he represents ‘love’. Urania the muse of astronomy is often depicted as the personification of science.

With this array of classical forms, symbols and personifications, artists could put a message or theme in their creation that was demanded for by the patrons. They could install important values and themes in their art.

But the ‘composing’ of art by the classical examples, personifications and prescribed themes a little artificial. This is one of the things that the innovating artists of the 19th C moved against.

It is quite normal for a social group to distinguish themselves through fashion, art and music etc. The elite of France in the second half of the 18th Century embraced classical art. They liked to mirror themselves to antiquity with its high standard of science, art and architecture. Their values and ideas also were based on the Neoplatonists ideas, in which intellect was placed above instinct. With this they placed themselves above other social classes and could justify their higher position.

To be able to mix in the high social class of the 18th Century one needed have knowledge of politics, philosophy, music and art. Many of the rich families send their sons on a ‘Grand Tour’ through Europe to visit the important cultural places and thus collecting enough cultural luggage to uphold themselves socially.

As stated before the art of the elite wasn’t just made to be beautiful, it also incorporated their beliefs and values. Through the ‘message’ in the art it showed what this elite stood for. But it also gave the owner to show his knowledge and erudition.

A nice example of such a ‘message’ in an object d’art is shown in this French mantel clock in our collection. It shows a seated classical lady with a scale which is often wrongly referred to by people seeing it as ‘Lady Justice’. Because if we look more closely we see on the scale on the one side Cupid, and on the other side a butterfly. Before I stated that Cupid is the personification of love. But there is a nuance to that, it is the personification of earthly, physical love, passion and falling in love. The butterfly symbolizes a higher, spiritual love which is also referred to as ‘Phyche’. In Neoplatonical terms; Cupid refers to the visible lower world, while the butterfly refers to the higher invisible world. Cupid should weigh more than a mere butterfly, but not in this theme. It shows that the spiritual Platonic love is regarded higher than the physical earthly love. In this way, the mantel clock shows what values were important to the owner.

The next mantel clock also shows what was important for the owner and his or her values. We see a standing Cupid on a stool in front and pointing at a mirror. We know now that Cupid symbolizes the physical love. The mirror refers to conceit, vein and outer appearance. Both the mirror and Cupid symbolize values not very appreciated by the French elite. Which becomes clear when we look more closely. There is a butterfly sitting between Cupid and the mirror. It is Psyche (reason) that stands between the two bad personifications. It is reason that keeps us away from the earthly bad characteristics. Furthermore on the base there is a relief which shows us Cupids that are practice shooting at a heart. This implies a warning; be careful Cupid is always practicing and could strike at any moment, hitting you with an arrow. When that would happen, it would cause all kind of problems of course. It would conflict possibly with marriage and steer that person away from the higher spiritual world, to the lower physical world.

Looking at this next clock as a 21st Century person, we see a beautiful mantel clock surmounted by a well cast and chiseled sculpture of Cupid. He is holding an arrow and he is feeling if the point is sharp and smiling. On the base of the clock there are two intertwining wreaths of laurels over a broken bow.

But to my idea and an 18th Century person this clock might well personify ‘marital loyalty’. It says; ‘be careful, Cupid has sharp arrows and is lurking’. The two wreaths represent the married couple. With the wreath laying over the broken bow, they defeat the threats of Cupid.

Now we have returned to the mantel clock which started this story. Many of the French 18th Century elite knew something of Greek Mythology. They well might have known that the figures here are the infant Zeus and the goat Amalthea. Zeus was the child of Cronos and Rhea. Cronos had been told that one of his children would cause his downfall. Because of this he would eat his new born children. To avoid this Rhea fled during her pregnancy to Crete, to give birth to Zeus in a cave between animals. When Cronos found her and wanted to eat his new sibling, she tricked him by giving him a stone wrapped in cloth making him think it was his child. Zeus remained in the cave. One version of the story states that there was a nymph called Amalthea feeding him with the milk of a goat. In another version, the goat is called Amalthea. Later Zeus would break off one of Amalthea’s horns while playing, which would turn into the Cornucopia, the horn of plenty. In another story Zeus kills Amalthea and uses her skin to make his magical shield ‘The Aegis’, and her horn to make the Cornucopia. Being very grateful for her milk he places her among the stars in the constellation Capra. Other versions speak of the constellation Capricorn.

There are a number of parallels between the infancy of Jezus and infancy of Zeus. Jezus was also born in a cave or stable between animals. Jezus was chased by Herodes, Zeus was chased by Cronos and both had to flee. Zeus would become the most important God of all Greek Gods, ruler of heaven and earth. (Poseidon was God of the sea, Hades was God of the underworld.) A connection can be made with Amalthea because she was put in Capricorn, the constellation under which Jezus was born.

It is wrong to believe that 18th Century people thought that Zeus and Jezus were the one and the same figure. It is more sort of a pre-announcement. Don’t forget that in the 18th Century it was believed that the world was about 5000 years old according to the Bible. this implied that the stories of Greek Mythology originated close to the beginning of the world, possibly partly from God directly. Was it not so that God had spoken to Mozes and had given him the Ten Commandments? Many stories from the Old Testament are seen as pre-announcements for events in the New Testament. In this case the story of the infancy of Zeus strengthens the importance and status of Jezus.

We therefore are not just looking at a lady with a goat and a baby. We are actually looking at a sort of pagan Christmas stall, that magnifies and strengthens the status of Jezus through a story from Greek Mythology.

This is the second and final part of my piece on French carrage clocks based on the lecture that was eld here in our shop in September 2016.

Paul Garnier.

Paul Garnier (1801 – 1869) was a good and inventive clockmaker who had been a student of Janvier. Besides his craft as clockmaker he was a smart business man. His important role in the development of the French carriage clock was only really discovered after research in the early 70-s of the 20th Century. A jury report of a great exhibition in 1828 states that Garnier had no travel clocks in his collection. But according to a jury report of 1834 he did have them, several types actually. In the report there is also mentioned that these clocks are very popular. Finally there is stated that he had sold more travel clocks in two years than that there had been sold in all time before!! This is of course a very important remark because it means that he had discovered and opened a market that had been unknown before.

Here we see an example of the first generation carriage clocks that Garnier made. They were more affordable for a larger group of people because of the lower production costs. This was the case because Granier used the blanc roulant  movements (pre fabricated, see part 1) and a well designed but relatively simple case. Besides that Garnier used an escapement of his own design that could be made mechanically. This escapement was patented by him in 1829.

Here is a picture of an early Garnier travel clock in parts. The design is relatively simple but very functional and neutral which could well be the reasons why it appealed to a lot of people. There were a few unpractical features though. First there was the front glass panel which had to be slid-up to gain access to the hands and winding holes. But it wasn’t secured which must have led to many broken or lost front panels. The front access to the winding holes and hands (the operating of these will later move to the back) also made it easily possible for a clumsy client to damage the hands.

Garnier’s frictional rest escapement was based on escapements by Enderlich and Sully as illustrated by the two upper escapements in the picture to the left.

The lower escapement is Garnier’s which consists of a semi-circular disc mounted on the balance axis. A tooth of one of the two parallel wheels which are connected to each other, rest on the disc alternating. Because of the shape of the teeth these wheels push the disc each time and thus giving impulse to the balance wheel. As already mentioned this escapement could be made by a machine which made it cheaper. It also omitted the use of a bevel gearing.

Here is a later carriage clock by Paul Garnier. The shape of the case is more rectangular and less square in comparison with the early clocks. This type of case is called ‘one-piece’ because the parts above the plinth are all solded together and form a whole. The ‘one-piece’ case is typical for early clocks before 1850.

Both case and mask surrounding the dial are finely engraved which must have made the clock much more expensive. We also see that the winding arbours and setting of the hands now has to be done at the back of the clock.

To my opinion the reasons of the sudden success of Garnier’s carriage clocks can be a attributed to a number of factors. First there is the rise of the ‘bourgeoisie’ in the first half of the 19th Century providing a large potential client base. This group was maybe less rich than the nobility of the 18th Century, but the group was much larger and still affluent enough to buy nice things. Secondly there was the smart production process and escapement keeping production costs at reasonable level. These costs were certainly lower than than those of the pendules d’officier. But most important to my opinion was the design was the most important reason for the success. Compared to these new carriage clocks, the Capucines look a little archaic. Although they are made for travelling, they proved to fit very nicely in an interior because of their neutral appearance.

Soon other clockmakers started to specialise in carriage clocks like Marc, Jules, jacot and Bourdin among others. Between 1830 and 1850 the production grows steadily. To the right we see an engraved ‘one-piece’ carriage clock from about 1845. Typical for the period are the trefoil hands which we also see on pendules clocks from this era.

Around 1845 the ‘Corniche’ case was introduced. It is a simple, neutral and elegant design of which the parts are screwed together this time, making it easier to produce than the ‘one-piece’. The name corniche refers to a simple moulding. It is the most common type of case which was produced from now until the end of the carriage clock production.

Here we see the parts of the Corniche case. All parts were cast seperately in sand and after that polished and worked by hand. Because of its simple straight lines, the parts were relatively easy to produce.

Even in the early period of these travel clocks there was a large difference in quality and execution. Depicted here is a fine clock of the famous clockmaker Bourdin. The case is of the Corniche type but executed with beautiful mouldings and fine foliate engraving. The ‘closed’ backpanel has holes with shutters for winding and setting the hands. It is also beautifully engraved. The feature of the ‘closed’ backpanels will dissappear after 1855.

Here is another clock by Bourdin illustrating that there were also carriage clocks of this type made for the very rich. The clocks has indicatons for time, seconds, alarm, phases of the moon, date, days of the week and power reserve. The finely egraved case is adourned with red marble panels.

I also wanted to show this carriage clock by Japy Frères from about 1845 which has a mechanical bird in the upper glazed part that moves and whistles. When we keep the clock above by Bourdin in mind we can already doubt if it was practical to travel with such a large clock. When we see this clock by Japy it is very unlikely that this clock was used fro travelling. It illustrates the fact that besides the practical travel clocks there were carriage clocks made purely for decoration and the use in the home. Thus serving an even larger market. It lead to the development of more types of cases and the further embellishment of the carriage clock.

Around 1855 the ‘gorge’ case was introduced. The name ‘gorge’ means steep valley or canyon which refer to the hollow and ogee mouldings of the parts. Because of the more intricate mouldings, it was more laborious to produce and therefore more expensive. The gorge case was almost exclusively used by the better makers like Drocourt, Margaine and Brocot. It is therefore very unlikely to find a gorge cased carriage clock with an inferior movement. The clock depicted here has a finely engraved case and mask.

Here is another  example of a gorge case carriage clock. This clock with it’s plain mouldings and white dial it has a totally different appearance.

About five years after the first gorge case, the case ‘à l’Anglaise’ was introduced. The most striking feature of this type of case is the rectangular plinth and handle. The name ‘Anglaise’ would imply English taste but this is just a name because the gorge and corniche cased clocks were also sold very well in England.

Here was see another example of an Anglaise carriage clock made around 1880 but now throughout decorated with cloisonné enamel. Again the rectangular features of the plinth and handle are distinctive for this type of case.

Again a few years later around 1870 the ‘Bamboo’ case was introduced, with it’s parts simulating bamboo. Typical for the period in which there was a lot of interest for the art and culture of the Orient. Just as with the Gorge and Anglaise cases we can state that this type was only used by the better makers. Of the three types, the bamboo is the most rare. This fine clock has porcelain panels painted and signed by F. Gardon. Besides a rare case, this clock has four fine paintings which made this clock a very exclusive and valuable piece, It is also a good example of a clock made for the interior instead of travelling. Even though these clocks were transported in travel cases, the porcelain panels remain delicate.

Here we see two further bamboo case carriage clocks, both with porcelain panels. One of the two is a miniature which makes it a very collectable item or fancy gift. So besides being practical travel clocks and pieces for the home interior, they were also collectable. With this another market was targeted by the makers who sought new clientele.

Here is a nice example of collectable clocks. Some very small, or very large and all decorated with either enamel or porcelain panels.

Besides the fairly common Corniche, the more exclusive Gorge and Anglaise, and the more rare Bamboo, more types of cases were made. It is impossible to show all types of cases. But to illustrate the diversity I will now show a few examples.

A very rare type is the Rococo case made from about 1860 but in small numbers. The quality of the casting can very tremendously. Some of the clocks were chiseled very well after casting and after that gilt. But there are also Rococo cases that were not chiseled after the casting and lack a lot of detail therefore. The Rococo case was made well up to 1900.

Here is another rare type of carriage clock made in the shape of a sedan. Clearly this case has nothing to do with travelling and only with collecting and decoration.

The clock shown here is over 30 cm high and has a movement striking the hours and quarters (grande sonnerie). Below in the finely engraved mask there is a calendar dial with indications for day of the week, date, month and phases of the moon. The beautiful architectoral case is made up of a stunning 105 parts. This rare clock has a handle but the size doesn’t seem practical for travelling to me. With the rare case made up of that large number of parts in combination with the calendar and fine movement, this clock must have cost a fortune.

Here is a price list of the famous maker Margaine dating from circa 1875. Unfortunately we don’t know which models are represented by the numbers, but we do get a good impression of the differences in prices between the clocks. We can see that the most simple corniche case combined with the most simple movement with cylinder escapement can already been bought for 40 francs. But the most expensive type of case (we don’t know which) combined with a quarter repeating movement with alarm costs 246 francs. This is over six times as much!

There are even more expensive clocks on the list. On the right we see the prices for clocks with ‘superior’quality movements. It is remarkable to see that a ‘superior’ movement with only half hour striking is much more expensive (314 francs) than the quarter repeating clocks with lesser quality movements. We can conclude from this that the quality of the movement made a big difference to the value of the clock. The work of a clockmaker was valued greatly. This conclusion is strengthened when looking at a price list of Frodsham of 1893. Here we see a gorge case, time only with compensated balance offered for 6 1/2 pounds. A gorge case clock with striking, repetition and alarm with compensated balance was offered for 15 pounds which is 2 1/2 times as much.

Finally there is a price list of Duverdery & Bloquel from 1910, the company of which we saw an illustration in the first part. The price of a corniche clock with cylinder escapement was 1,1 pound. The same clock but now with a anchor escapement was 2,2 pounds. We can conclude from this that the anchor escapement and the work of a good clockmaker was valued as much as the movement, case and dial together.

Besides the substantial price differences in regard to the types of cases and movements, there were other options for the clients to chose from that influenced the price. We already have seen painted porcelain panels, cloisonné enamel and finely engraved decoration. And an engraved mask surrounding a dial was more expensive than a plain white dial. The clock shown here which has Limoges enamel panels and an engraved Gorge case must have been a very expensive piece.

The peak of carriage clock production was around 1880. From the beginning on, the French carriage clock was an important export article. We can only do an educated guess to the number of clocks that have been made but some conclusions can be made when looking at the production numbers of the ‘blanc roulants’ (prefabricated movements).

There have been a few enquiries in the 19th Century which shed some light on the matter.

An enquiry of 1857 reports that 170.000 blancs were made in the East of France (Jura and the area near the Swiss border). In 1867 this number had grown to 200.000, and in addition 30.000 music boxes and 100.000 escapements had been made. In 1878 a survey reports a number of 400.000 blanc roulants which means that the production had been doubled in 20 years!

The figures regarding the West of Franse (St.-Nicholas d’Alliermont) are a little less detailed. But in 1867 there were 144.000 movements made. The survey of 1878 states that production had grown with 35% compaired to 1867 which would mean that about 216.000 movements had been made.

These numbers of course do not only refer to travel clocks, but also to pendulum clocks and even simple alarms. The numbers do indicate that there was a considerable production which was at it’s peak around 1880.

The technical development of the movements is concluded around 1860. But the development in new cases besides the existing ones does go on, often fitting the latest style. To illustrate this fact we see here a carriage clock from about 1890 which has a lot of Art Nouveau influences and translucent enamel over an engined turned ground. This technique is seen from about 1890 onwards. The use of Arabic numerals on the dial is typical for some clocks between 1890 and 1910.

Here is a gorge cased clock which has been embellished with beautiful Art Nouveau translucent enamel panels. This clock also has Arabic numerals typical and was probably made around 1900.

Although there were still good quality clocks made after 1900, the main production is limited to the lower end clocks having time only or an alarm in addition.

A production of silver miniatures often decorated with translucent enamel was started around 1900 in Switzerland. Here we see an example of about 1925 in Art Deco style. The impact of World War I was probably less profound in Switzerland. This might well be the reason that the Swiss could establish themselves in the luxury market instead of the French.

On the picture here we see a travel clock with a case called ‘Doucine’. Many parts are made of flat brass that is ‘chased’ or bent into shape instead of cast parts. This is much easier and therefore cheaper to produce. Clocks with this kind of case are almost always provided with simple movements. It is a clock that is typical for the later Frencg carriage clock and heralding the end of French carriage clocks.

After the first World War there were carriage clocks made in France but the production consisted almost only of simple and cheap versiosns. To the right we see a number of late carriage clocks. Clearly the cases have been simplified and constructed like the Doucine from ostly bent brass parts. Again these were easy to produce by machines. It is the last phase of the French carriage clock production which had its peak in the second half of the 19th Century. During the interbellum many factories closed or switched to other products like simple alarm clocks etc..  Bloquel and Duverdrey were one of the last to close, they ceased production in 1959.

The clocks collection of Gude & Meis includes a wide range of carriage clocks. Therefore it seemed useful and fun to give a lecture on the development of these clocks. This article is the written version of this lecture which was held in September 2016 in our shop. I hope that you will enjoy reading about these clocks.

It is not possible to name all exeptions and nuances in a short article as this. But I do intend to explain the beginning and further development of the well known French carriage clock.

I have used the following books for reference and pictures, besides pictures of clocks that are ofr have been in the collection of Gude & Meis.

Charles Allix & Peter Bonnert, Carriage Clocks, their History and development, Woodbridge Engeland 1974.

Derek Roberts, Carriage and other Travelling Clocks, Atglen USA 1993.

Joseph Fanelli & Charles Terwilliger, A Century of fine Carriage Clocks, Bronxville USA, 1987.

The Production.

A clock is ususally made by several craftsmen. One can easily understand that a wooden or gilt bronze case wasn’t made by the clockmaker but another person. But we need to understand that already from the late 17thC on, there were specialists who made hands, dilas, springs and other parts of movements and so on. Partly this was done because specialists could produce better quality because they could produce better quality. But also the more crude work was done by lesser skilled (and cheaper) workmen.

Later in the 18th century whole movements were made by workers who worked from home or small workshops. The crude work of cutting and filing the plates was done but the whole was not polished. The arbours and wheels were in their place but needed polishing. But foremost these movements lacked their escapements and striking levers that needed to be made and adjusted by the skilled clockmaker. These unfinished movements were called ‘blanc roulants’ or ‘ebouches’. The clockmaker also needed to fit the dial work and hands.

Here are a few examples of unfinished movements that were bought by the firm of Jacot early 20thC. Note the missing escapements.

Here we see a map of France. There are two areas important for this story. One in the north west near Dieppe called St. Nicholas d’Alliermont. In the east there is the Jura with villages like Mont Beliard and Badeval.

Frederic Japy and the Jura.

Frederic Japy became master clockmaker in 1770. He lived and worked in the Jura near the Swiss border. He started out making these half finished movements for other clockmakers. He used craftsmen working from home to make parts for him. Soon he realized that by using machines he could speed up the crude work (like cutting and filing of the plates) and make it cheaper. He developed these machines and opened his first workshop in 1779 in Badeval.

A few of his sons also opened large factories making clock movements for instance in Beaucourt. With this they laid the foundation for a large group of factories that existed up until the first World War.

Here we see two pictures of the factory that was opened in 1810 in Badeval. The scale of the buildings is quite impressive to my opinion. The layout looks very efficient with all the windows for the workers.

There were other factories and workshops providing parts for these large factories themselves, like dials, escapaments etc. The still existing firm L’Epee provided platform escapements for carriage clocks.

Here is an image of one of the Japy Frères factories around 1850.

St. Nicholas d’Alliermont.

In the north west of France, the small town of St. Nicholas d’Alliermont became an important production centre for clock movements. There had been a clockmaking tradition for centuries but it had suffered greatly because of the Revolution and the Napoleontic wars. To provide jobs for the suffering local economy Paris was asked for help. It was Honoré Pons who was sent in 1806 to restart the industry. He first united the craftsmen in a sort of Guild. He then set up large workshops that produced movements in collaboration with craftsmen that worked from home. In this way he was able to set up a production of cheap well built movements. Typical for the houses of the workmen working from home are the windows with the small glass panes which are still visible in the town.

Already in 1819 two silver medals were awarded to Pons and the town as a whole to encourage them further.

In the course of the century several large factories were founded. Here we see two picturies of the Duverdrey & Bloquel, both from the end of the 19th Century.

The Capucine

In the third quarter of the 18th Century in France there were clocks made for travel. There was a more luxurious type of clocks that we now call ‘Pendule d’officier’ and there was a more sober type that we call now ‘Capucine’. The term Pendule à la Capucine probably refers to the Capucine monks who lived very plainly. But there are also people say that the typical bell of the Capucines resembles the hood of the Capucine dress. Even though these clocks are less ornate than the ‘Pendules d’officier’, they were still too expensive for most people. One of the most telling differences between the pendules d’officier  and Capucines is that the Capucines are hardly ever gilt.

The first generation of Capucines are individually shaped and differ per clockmaker. Before 1800 most Capucines have a pendulum that will not run of course when travelling. One needed to set up the clock at the place where one stayed.

Our first example is a relatively large Capucine made by Bechet in Lyon. Looking at the style of the dial and hands, we can date this clock around 1770. The shape of the case is a clear example for the Capucines that would follow but it has a number of characteristics that are unusual. This fine clock has quarter striking and it lacks an alarm or repetition which would become standard for later clocks.

Here is another nice example of an early Capucine (circa 1780) made by Janvier Cadet who worked in the Jura. This clock doesn’t strike the hours but has alarm only. There is no bezel ( ornate ring around the dial ) which is an early characteristic. The austere appearance of this clock  fits nicely with the term à la Capucine.

This clock is signed Bertrand A Paris and dates about 1790. It is well possible that this clock was made in the Jura but finished and sold in Paris by Bertrand. This clock also only has alarm and no striking work just like the Janvier clock. Again we can see that the earlier Capucines differ per maker and have their individual shape.

This lovely clock is signed Tisseau A Montpellier and also dates around 1790. It is very likely that this clock was made in the Jura and sold to Tisseau with its signed dial who was the re-seller. It is a fine example of a Capucine that has characteristics that would become more standard in the 19th Century. 1. The clock has half hour striking. It strikes once for the half hour and on the hour it strikes the full number of hours. It also repeats the hours after about two minutes. This is called Morbier striking and is very helpful because one often realizes too late that a clock is striking and is too late to count the strikes. With Morbier striking one only has to wait a few minutes to contiously count the strikes. 2. The clock will repeat the last hour on demand by either pulling a string or pushing a button. This feature is also very helpful since it was impossible to turn the light on quickly in the 18th Century, This way one could determine the time within the hour in the dark. 3. The clock has an alarm. It can be set by the steel pointer and activated by winding a small spring by pulling a cord. 4. The case has a number of characteristics that will become standard later on; doors to the back and sides, four urn finials on the corners and one on the bell support.

The clock shown here was made circa 1810. The Capucines dating from the 19th Century can be dated by their bezels. Initially they are thin. Later they will resemble the bezels of Empire mantel clock with engraved Acanthus leaves. At the end of the development around 1840 the bezels are wide and lack engraving.

At the start of the 19th Century a more standarised production was developed in the Jura. This is easy to understand when we take the large production of movements in the region. In this way craftsmen could specialise in either dials, cases, etc. In this way the clocks could be produced more cheaply. We also see Capucines with cylinder escapement and balance from the start of the 19th Century which could keep on running when one was travelling. But besides these clocks with balance, clocks with pendulum were being produced.

Here we see the front and back of a ‘standard’ Capucine as made from the start from the 19th Century. We can date this clock around 1830-’40. The clock has all the functions that were mentioned with the Tisseau A Montpellier clock. It is also an example showing  balance with cylinder escapement.

Besides brass cased Capucines, there were also Capucines made with wooden cases. Most stem from the second quarter of the 19th Century. Maybe these clocks with wooden cases were an attempt to ‘modernise’ these clocks a little bit and more attractive for potential buyers. Because when we look at the form of the Capucines, they are shaped like lantern clocks which have their origin in the 17th Century. Maybe the Capucines were very functional but also a little archaic. After 1840 the production of the Capucines diminishes quickly, which will be explained later on in this account.

La pendule d’officier, the officer’s clock.

As stated before there were the more luxurious clocks besides the Capucines called ‘pendule d’officier’, officer’s clock. The name obviously referring to the officer’s often of nobel descent who bought these clocks besides other rich clients. The development of these clocks runs partly paralel with the Capucines. Just as those clocks, the earlier officer’s clocks are individual per clockmaker and most of those are fitted with a pendulum. These clocks also had to be ste up at the place where one was staying.

The clock depicted here was made by J.B. du Tertre and is fitted with a finely engraved gilt bronze case with glass panels to the back and sides. It has striking work and alarm on a bell. The shaped of the finely foliate pierced and engraved hands together with the style of the dial indicate a date around 1770.

The clock depicted here was made by Charles LeRoy around 1770 – 1780. This clock also has a fine gilt bronze case and striking work but lacks alarm. The clearly different shape illustrates the fact that these earlier clocks are very individual in shape.

This is a third example of an early pendule d’officier and is signed Lefubere A Fontainebleau. The fine case is elaborately decorated and shows that appearance did sometimes won over functionality. Of course this clock was transported in a custom made wooden or leather case. This clock not only just has striking work but is also fitted with quarter repeating on demand. Again of course to hear what time it was in the dark.

This fine clock was made in 1777 for Marie-Antoinette by LeRoi et Fils from La Chaux des Fonds in Switzerland near the French border. It has quarter striking and repetition, alarm and calendar. The case is well designed and finished with great detail. The arched case would become very populair with other makers.

It was also in La Chaux des Fonds where some families specialised themselves in the production of pendukes d’officiers, like the Roberts and the Courvoisiers. The clock shown here is an example of their work. This somewhat standarised production is recognizable by their similarities and thus much less individual. These clocks, although slightly more common remained very expensive.

Often these clocks are fitted with striking work, repetition and alarm. It is not uncommon for these clocks to have quarter striking. A typcal characteristic is the striking work that is fitted to the backplate of the movement, which is a Swiss tradition. With French clocks we find the striking work fitted between the dial and frontplate.

Here is another example of the production as described above made around 1800. This case has a flat top but the similarities with the above clock are obvious.

This clock is signed Vanderschen Bruxelles and is probably made including its dial (just like the capucine by Tisseau) in the region of La Chaux des Fonds for reseller Vanderschen. The three winding holes indicate that the clock has quarter striking, and it is further fitted with repetiton and alarm.

Just like with the Capucines there were pendules d’officiers made with mahogany cases. The shape of the case, dial, hands and movement clearly show resemblances with the two clocks above.

Naast de productie in het oosten van Frankrijk en rond La Chaux des Fonds werden er ook Pendules d’officier gemaakt in Parijs. Vaak door goede makers en zeer exclusief en hierdoor veel individueler. Hier zien we een heel fraaie klok met kalenderwerk in heel fraaie vuurverguld bronzen kast gemaakt door Lepaute in 1823. Er bleef dus een zeer exclusieve productie bestaan voor de zeer gefortuneerden.

Abraham Louis Breguet

Abraham Louis Breguet is regarded by many as one of the greatest and most innovative clockmakers that ever lived. He was born in Neuchâtel Switzerland in 1747. His talent for clockmaker was discovered on a young age and he started working in Paris. Because of his talent and fine work he became the clockmaker of the Parisian elite and even Louis XVI. Also after the Revolution he soon became the leading clockmaker for the elite. He is responsible for many inventions and improvements in the horological field. Breguet died in 1823 but his firm was continued by his successors until modern times.

Breguet sold this Pendule d’officier to Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798 being one of a series of three. The clock has a balance (no pendulum), calendar, striking work and repetition. Both the movement and case are of the utmost quality and the clock was very expensive. With this clock Breguet introduced a type of pendule d’officier that would become iconic for him and his firm.

The type of case that was designed for the Napoleon clock is called ‘Empire’.

Breguet would introduce two other types of cases for his pendules d’officier. There is this arched version which is called ‘humpback’ and was introduced around 1820.

The third type introduced by Breguet was a mahogany cased clock of which we see an example here.

For my story on the typical French carriage clock that would be introduced later, the Empire case is important. Because with this design of glass panels to a rectangular case to all sides and the top, Breguet lays the foundation for the cases of the later French carriage clocks.

From the archives of the Breguet firm we know that this clock was sold for the sum of 4000 francs which was a small fortune in those days. In the second part I will also discuss prices of the carriage clock which even more will illustrate how large a sum of money this was.

We are now at the end of the first part of this article on the development of the French carriage clock. We can conclude that until circa 1830, there were travel clocks being made in France but not in great numbers. Of the ones that were made, the pendules d’officier were very expensive and affordable only for a few. The Capucines being cheaper but the design was out dated, looking like lantern clocks with their origins in the 17th Century.

part 2 will follow soon.

This is the second and final part of the written version of a lecture that I have held in May 2016 here in the shop.

The great clock of Big Ben.

In a great fire in 1834 the English Westminster palace, the seat of parliament was mostly destroyed. The architect Charles Barry won the bid to build a new palace which was also to have a tower containing a clock. In 1844 Barry asks Vulliamy to draw plans for a turret clock. These plans would be the basis for the bids of clockmakers wanting to win the commission of making the clock. It is very unusual for a clock to be made like this but very logical for an architect. You make a drawing of a bridge and after that you have builders compete to make this bridge. He doesn’t realise that building a clock is something completely different. It can be built in many different ways and technical elements which leads to totally different designs.

It is not very strange that he choose Vulliamy. Because we know that Barry’s son John worked for Vulliamy from 1836 until 1841. Therefore we know that they were aquainted. Vulliamy agrees with the assignment but states that he wants 100 pounds for the drawings and 00 pounds more if he doesn’t get the bid. Although Vulliamy doesn’t give an estimate openly, we know from his notes that he thought it would cost 3.600 pounds and would take two years of work.

In July 1845 Dent writes Airy to let him know that he wants to compete for the bid to make this clock. He asks if Airy can put in a good word for him on account of his clock that he made for the Royal Exchange. Airy replies that he will support Dent for the bid because he still thinks that the Royal Exchange clock is the best public clock in the world.

Dent also asks Denison if he wants to support him for the bid. Denison a lawyer by profession had written a book on clock making and had acquired a reputation in the field. He was also very active with the restoration of churches and other old buildings. Through the restoration of these buildings he also got experience with the restoration of turret clocks. He was of noble descent had good connections.

In November 1845 Dent notifies the building commission that he wants to join in the bidding for the clock. He learns that he can bid on drawings that will be supplied at a later date. Dent is very disappointed and writes Denison that he doesn’t want to work according to the plans of someone else. He is convinced that his own design will be superior and that he has a much better chance to get the commission with his own plans.

Dent decides to write the building commission that Airy is the right person to judge the design for this turret clock. It’s a smart move because in this way he introduces his own supporter to the building commission. He also states in this letter that he will not join the bid for the commission if he can’t submit his own plans.

As late as June 1846 the building commission asks Airy to help them with the building of the clock. They probably contact him because the whole clock project was not going forward because Vulliamy hadn’t submitted his plans yet. Airy answers in a letter that he has had this job before with the building of the clock for the Royal Exchange. He also writes that he suggested Vulliamy and Whitehurst for the bid but that for inexplicable reasons, the Gresham committee decided to choose Dent. This comment is of course very peculiar since Airy was probably instrumental with Dent winning the bid for the Royal Exchange clock. He makes almost sound that he had nothing to do with the choice of the committee in that matter. He does say however that Dent did a very good job and came up with some very good innovations and therefore he should be asked as well.

What would have happened if Vulliamy had made his plans more quickly? I think that it is safe to say that he probably would have gotten the commission and things would have gone totally different.

The committee  are pleased with Airy’s help and give him a lot of influence. Just as with the Royal Exchange clock Airy lays down a number of demands for the design. He wants a pocket chronometer to be made with the clock so it can be checked against the Observatory. Again the striking should not interfere with the going train of the clock. Because the clock will be a showcase of Britain’s ability the clock should be accessible for the public. Further specifications are; compensated pendulum, maintaining power, escapement remontoire, deadbeat escapement, regulating spring working on the bob of the pendulum, striking should be within a second of the hour and the frame must be made in way that each part can be taken out for maintenance. Finally, the maker should study the Royal Exchange clock and Airy will be the judge of the final clock. Of course Barry the architect is not happy with the interfering by Airy.

In July 1846 Barry asks Whitehurst and Vulliamy to compete for the bid. Vulliamy declines straight away because he feels that he has no chance because Airy is prejudiced against him.

On August 8^th Dent sends in his bid for 1500 pounds. Whitehurst follows in September with a bid for 3.400 pounds.

Vulliamy  sends in his drawings now  finally following up on his agreement with Barry to earn his 200 pounds.  He doesn’t give a figure for the costs though. It is a clock with a heavy 210 – 240 kg pendulum with a double mahogany rod and Lepaute’s pinwheel escapement. Vulliamy makes a smaller model of this clock which is seen by Denison who writes that it is a very smart and well made clock. (March 1847)

One of the committee members asks Vulliamy that he should consider trying for the bid. This gives Vulliamy hope that he still might have a chance to get the bid. He writes a letter to Airy in which he states that he would compete for the clock if anyone but Airy would be the judge.

When Airy is asked to comment on both Dent and Whitehurst he states globally the following;

Dent has a slightly larger and more modern workshop. He is also more experienced with precision than Whitehurst.

Whitehurst on the other hand is a more experienced maker of turret clocks and should be able to do a fine job. Both makers would need help of an engineer with the frame and first wheel purely on the size of the clock. The following remark is to my opinion the most telling of Airy’s opinion. He states that Dent will probably sooner learn Whitehurst’s stability than that whitehurst will learn Dent’s precision.

When asked to comment on the large difference in price he states that Whitehurst probably has put on a little ‘premium’ because it is a prestigious commission. Dent on the other hand being the shrewd businessman that he is might have given a price lower than the actual cost because he realises the publicity that he might gain with the commission.

The committee also ask Airy what his opinion is on Vulliamy’s plans. He says that he can’t really comment on them because Vulliamy didn’t really enter the bid and that he doesn’t accept Airy as judge. But he does give a comment of some sort. According to Airy the clock is very well designed but that Vulliamy made a few elemental mistakes. The pendulum is not compensated and Vulliamy interpreted Berthoud totally wrong. For Airy it is clear that this design is a beautiful turret clock but not the technical marvel showing Britain’s excellence.

Things are looking good for Dent and it seems there is nothing standing in the way of him getting the commission. But things are not what they seem.

The great clock is not the only clock in the palace and Dent wants to get the commission of making the clocks for the offices etc as well. He writes a letter on May 3rd asking how he can join the bid for these clocks. He doesn’t get an answer and he writes another on June 7^th which gets answered; he is too late with his bid because it closed in 1845.

Dent is very upset and he does something very peculiar. He writes the committee July 3^rd  to tell them that he won’t continue with the bid because he is not allowed to have a go at all the clocks in the palace. He writes Airy a long letter on July 7^th to explain his decision. He complains that beside this matter he also feels that the architect Barry and builders are against him. They don’t answer him and they have lost one of his drawings.

The committee are in a difficult spot because the most likely candidate gets out of the bid and the whole clock project gets delayed even more. Airy intervenes letting the committee know that Dent has a point but didn’t treat the matter very smart by getting out of the bid. He still feels that Dent is the best option for the great clock. Late July Dent receives a letter that since his letter no clocks have been commissioned for the palace. In the future he will be able to bid for any further clocks and Barry is not allowed to order any clocks on his own. On August 4^th Dent writes the committee that he joins the bid again. Looking back on these events it is very risky that Dent pushed things that far. In the end he got his way, but I don’t think it made his relation with Barry any better.

On March 18^th 1848 Dent and Whitehurst sent in their final plans. It is around this time that Denison, later Lord Grimthorpe starts to interfere on behalf of Dent. He wields some influence and states that Barry and Vulliamy are against Dent and Airy. He also lets the committee know that he through his projects has bought turret clocks both from Vulliamy and Dent. Dent is to his opinion superior to Vulliamy and Vulliamy is superior to the rest.

Then nothing happens for about 2 years…..

We can only speculate why the project doesn’t get any further during this period. But my opinion is that because of the differences between Barry/Vulliamy and Dent/Denison/Airy, the committee just pushed the problem ahead without really trying to solve it.

In August 1851 Airy writes a letter to ask the builders if a ventilation shaft or part of it could be used for the weights of the clock dropping. He also asks if a hatchet could be made to hoist up all the parts of the clock. He gets a short answer that it is possible with a few adaptions of the plans.

In a joint letter to the committee on January 29^th 1852 Airy and Denison state that according to the latest plans Dent is the best candidate to make the clock. On 16^th of February Dent sends in his final plans and on February 25^th he finally wins the commission. Eight years after Barry asking Vulliamy for plans of the clock.

On March 22^nd Airy and Denison, and maybe Dent too have a look in the clock room to inspect the actual situation. They find that the room has been built as to fit the clock designed by Vulliamy! Barry had just followed his own plans and ideas. So, again the plans for the clock need to be adjusted.

Even after Dent has won the commission Vulliamy tries to get his way by filing a complaint for the Clockmakers Company in May 1852. He states that Dent is not fit to make this clock. But now Denison the lawyer infamous for his bad temper and strong verbal capabilities fights these allegations.

On March 8^th 1853 Edward John Dent dies after a sick bed of about two months probably due to stomach cancer. Dent has two stepsons who had been working in the company for a long time already. They change their last name into Dent and they inherit the company. So Frederick Rippon becomes Frederick Dent and he takes over the turret clock part of the company. He writes the committee in May 1853 that the walls of the clock room still aren’t high enough to place the clock. But that the work on the clock is going smoothly, the pendulum had been running for over a half year and that he will have the clock ready in February 1854 as per contract.

Several members in the committee now start a discussion if Frederick automatically can take over the contract that was made with Edward John Dent. I suspect that Barry fully supported that discussion. They have a few lawyers look into the matter but don’t write anything to Frederick.

Frederick has now started to use Denison’s gravity escapement which he mentions in a letter to Airy who would like to have a working model of it. Frederick Dent actually writes that this escapement performs really well even being mounted on a very simple movement.

Now I want to elaborate a little on the gravity escapement designed by Denison. He has his first thoughts on this escapement in 1846 and through a number of phases makes it perfect in the years following. In 1851 he invents his double three legged gravity escapement. As earlier stated one of the biggest problems of a turret clock is the great power needed to deal with the influences of the weather via the hands that also work on the escapement. While precision needs only  the slightest power working on the escapement so the pendulum can swing as freely as possible. The long rotating arms (a lot of leverage) are used to stop the wheel train which pushes a lot of power as said before. At the centre of the escapement the arms are lifted every time and gently laid against the pendulum rod. It is the weight of these arms that keep the pendulum swinging. With the pendulum weighing about 310 kg. and being 4.4 metres long it is massive. The wheel train would push the pendulum rod with a force of 3.2 kg. when a pinwheel escapement would be applied. A Graham escapement would push the pendulum rod with a force of 1.8 kg which is already much better. But Denison’s gravity escapement only pushes the pendulum rod with 113 grams!

When you click on the button below you will see a youtube video of the escapement in motion.

Denison was a good lawyer and smart horologist. But his temper and bad demeanour were infamous. When Airy asks Denison to provide Barry with the drawings of the frame in October 1853, Denison flat out refuses because he is fed up with Barry. He writes that Barry has been working against him all this time, that he doesn’t reply letters and that he already had received all drawings. A week later Airy asks again but Denison does not want to comply. Airy then writes Seymour the head of the committee to be relieved as a judge for the great clock. Because he is impressed by the horological knowledge of Denison but not of his way of conducting affairs and dealing with people.

On November 18^th 1853 the committee informs Frederick Dent that they don’t feel obliged to comply with the contract that was made with Edward John Dent.

Frederick reacts immediately and writes a long letter to the committee. The two most important arguments are that Barry just doesn’t react to any letters and has been working against him. And most importantly, that he informed the committee about half a year ago that he would finish the contract. They knew but haven’t reacted and in this way silently agreeing with him finishing the contract. He also states that he isn’t a lawyer but two of his associates are and that the committee can deal with them about this turn of events.

It takes as late as June 1854 for Frederick to get an answer from the committee. They state that nothing really has changed but indeed, they knew he was working on the clock and by not informing him they automatically accepted him as maker of the clock. So finally Frederick can finish the clock.

In April 1855 Airy goes to inspect the finished clock in Frederick’s workshop and soon after Denison does the same. Both are very impressed and satisfied.

With the positive judges Frederick now has fulfilled his part of the contract. He writes a letter the to commission to inform them that he is ready but can’t place the clock yet because the tower still isn’t finished. He wants to receive the amount of the contract and will keep the clock running until he can place it.

Finally in March 1859 the bells are installed and the tower is ready for the clock. After a short delay of two weeks because a couple of windows needed to be enlarged the installation can begin. After four weeks Frederick and his assistants place the clock. Just in time for the first assembly of  the parliament in the new houses of parliament on May 1^st the clock, the clock is ready and running.

Here is a picture of the clock that Dent’s used as advertisement.